Métodos para evaluar la exposición a contaminantes plásticos en procellariiformes
revisión y estandarización de protocolos
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37002/biodiversidadebrasileira.v11i3.1829Palabras clave:
Océano; polución, aves marinas, residuos plásticosResumen
Los estudios sobre la presencia de residuos antropogénicos en el mar y su ingesta por aves marinas se han incrementado en las últimas décadas. Los Procellariiformes son particularmente susceptibles a la ingesta de plásticos debido a que se alimentan preferentemente de presas sobre la superficie del mar, donde los plásticos tienden a flotar y acumularse. Luego de una extensa revisión bibliográfica y la aplicación práctica de técnicas en el laboratorio y el campo, presentamos protocolos estandarizados para la colecta de muestras para evaluar la ingesta de plásticos en Procellariiformes. Estos protocolos sugieren una variedad de tipos y fuentes de muestras y metodologías de colecta de acuerdo a diferentes objetivos de investigación. Las muestras pueden ser colectadas de aves muertas encontradas en la playa o capturadas incidentalmente en pesquerías; de aves vivas o muertas en colonias reproductivas y centros de rehabilitación; o de manera no-invasiva en el caso de fecas, bolos y huevos no eclosionados. Además, recomendamos métodos de análisis, insumos necesarios y rutinas de limpieza para evitar la contaminación durante la colecta y procesamiento de muestras. La implementación de protocolos estandarizados para la colecta y el análisis de muestras favorece la consistencia y repetibilidad de los estudios, permitiendo la comparación de los resultados y la detección de patrones espacio-temporales a gran escala.Â
Citas
Acampora H, Lyashevska O, Van Franeker JA, O'Connor I. The use of beached bird surveys for marine plastic litter monitoring in Ireland. Marine environmental research, 120:122-129, 2016.
Álvarez G, Barros Á, Velando A. The use of European shag pellets as indicators of microplastic fibers in the marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 137: 444-448, 2018.
Avery-Gomm S, et al. A study of wrecked dovekies (Alle alle) in the western North Atlantic highlights the importance of using standardized methods to quantify plastic ingestion. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 113: 75-80, 2016.
Avery-Gomm S, Provencher JF, Liboiron M, Poon FE, Smith PA. Plastic pollution in the Labrador Sea: an assessment using the seabird northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis as a biological monitoring species. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 127: 817-822, 2018.
Avery-Gomm S. Plastic Pollution and Conservation of Imperilled Seabird Species. Tese de Doutorado. University of Queensland. 196p., 2020.
Baak JE, Provencher JF, Mallory ML. Plastic ingestion by four seabird species in the Canadian Arctic: Comparisons across species and time. Marine pollution bulletin, 158, 111386, 2020.
Baini M, et al. First detection of seven phthalate esters (PAEs) as plastic tracers in superficial neustonic/planktonic samples and cetacean blubber. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1512-1520, 2017.
BirdLife International. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018. http://www.birdlife.org Acesso em: 15/10/2020.
Bond AL, Provencher JF, Daoust PY, Lucas ZN. Plastic ingestion by fulmars and shearwaters at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 87, 68-75, 2014.
Bond AL, Hutton I, & Lavers JL. Plastics in regurgitated Flesh-footed Shearwater (Ardenna carneipes) boluses as a monitoring tool. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 168: 112428, 2021.Bourdages MP, Provencher JF, Baak JE, Mallory ML, Vermaire JC. 2021. Breeding seabirds as vectors of microplastics from sea to land: Evidence from colonies in Arctic Canada. Science of The Total Environment, 764: 142808, 2021.
Braune BM, Letcher RJ, Gaston AJ, Mallory ML. Trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in eggs of Canadian Arctic seabirds reflect changing use patterns. Environmental Research, 142: 651-661, 2015.
Carey MJ. Intergenerational transfer of plastic debris by Short-tailed Shearwaters (Ardenna tenuirostris). Emu, 111(3): 229-234, 2011.Codina-García M, Militão T, Moreno J, González-Solís J. Plastic debris in Mediterranean seabirds. Marine pollution bulletin, 77(1-2), 220-226, 2013.
Colabuono FI, Barquete V, Domingues BS, Montone RC. Plastic ingestion by Procellariiformes in southern Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58: 93-96, 2009.
Colabuono FI, Taniguchi S, Montone RC. Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in plastics ingested by seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60: 630-634, 2010.
Cole M, Webb H, Lindeque PK, Fileman ES, Halsband C, Galloway TS. Isolation of microplastics in biota-rich seawater samples and marine organisms. Nature Scientific Reports, 4: 4528, 2014.
Commendatore M, et al. Persistent organic pollutants in sediments, intertidal crabs, and the threatened Olrog's gull in a northern Patagonia salt marsh, Argentina. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 136: 533-546, 2018.
Copello S, Quintana FR. Marine debris ingestion by Southern Giant Petrels and its potential relationships with fisheries in the Southern Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46: 1513-1515, 2003.
Copello S, Quintana F, Pérez F. Diet of the southern giant petrel in Patagonia: fishery-related items and natural prey. Endangered Species Research, 6(1): 15-23, 2008.
Dias, M. P., Martin, R., Pearmain, E. J., Burfield, I. J., Small, C., Phillips, R. A., ... & Croxall, J. P. (2019). Threats to seabirds: a global assessment. Biological Conservation, 237, 525-537.
Endo S, et al. Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: Variability among individual particles and regional differences. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50: 1103-1114, 2005.
Finkelstein ME, et al. Contaminant-associated alteration of immune function in black-footed albatross (Phoebastria nigripes), a North Pacific predator. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry: An International Journal, 26: 1896-1903, 2007.
Fossi MC, et al. Are baleen whales exposed to the threat of microplastics? A case study of the Mediterranean fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64(11): 2374-2379, 2012.
Fossi MC, et al. Large filter feeding marine organisms as indicators of microplastic in the pelagic environment: the case studies of the Mediterranean basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) and fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). Marine Environmental Research, 100: 17-24, 2014.
Fossi MC, Vlachogianni T, Galgani F, Degli Innocenti F, Zampetti G, Leone G. Assessing and mitigating the harmful effects of plastic pollution: the collective multi-stakeholder driven Euro-Mediterranean response. Ocean & Coastal Management, 184: 105005, 2020.
Furness RW. Plastic particle pollution: accumulation by procellariiform seabirds at Scottish Colonies. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 16(3): 103-106, 1985.
GESAMP. Guidelines for the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean. In: Kershaw, P.J., Turra, A., Galgani, F. (Eds.), (IMO/FAO/ UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP/ISA Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP). Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 99, 130p, 2019.
Gil-Delgado JA, Guijarro D, Gosálvez RU, López-Iborra GM. Ponz A, Velasco A. Presence of plastic particles in waterbirds faeces collected in Spanish lakes. Environmental Pollution, 220: 732-736, 2017.
Gray H, Lattin GL, Moore CJ. Incidence, mass and variety of plastics ingested by Laysan (Phoebastria immutabilis) and Black-footed Albatrosses (P. nigripes) recovered as by-catch in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine pollution bulletin, 64(10), 2190-2192, 2012.
Grimaldi WW, Seddon PJ, Lyver POB, Nakagawa S, Tompkins DM. Infectious diseases of Antarctic penguins: current status and future threats. Polar Biology, 38: 591-606, 2015.
Hamilton BM, et al. Microplastics around an Arctic seabird colony: Particle community composition varies across environmental matrices. Science of The Total Environment, 773, 145536, 2021.
Hammer S, Nager RG, Johnson PCD, Furness RW, Provencher JF. Plastic debris in great skua (Stercorarius skua) pellets corresponds to seabird prey species. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 103(1-2): 206-210, 2016.
Hardesty BD, Holdsworth D, Revill AT, Wilcox C. A biochemical approach for identifying plastics exposure in live wildlife. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 6: 92-98, 2015.
Herzke D, et al. Negligible impact of ingested microplastics on tissue concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in northern fulmars off coastal Norway. Environmental science & technology, 50(4): 1924-1933, 2016.
Hyrenbach KD, et al. Plastic ingestion by Black-footed Albatross Phoebastria nigripes from Kure Atoll, Hawai'i: Linking chick diet remains and parental at-sea foraging distributions. Marine Ornithology, 45: 225-236, 2017.
Ibañez AE, Morales LM, Torres DS, Borghello P, Haidr NS, Montalti D. Plastic ingestion risk is related to the anthropogenic activity and breeding stage in an Antarctic top predator seabird species. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 157: 111351, 2020.Jambeck JR, et al. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347: 768e771, 2015.
Jaspers V, et al. Brominated flame retardants and organochlorine pollutants in eggs of Little owls (Athene noctua) from Belgium. Environmental Pollution, 136: 81-88, 2005.
Jiménez S, Domingo A, Brazeiro A, Defeo O, Phillips RA. Marine debris ingestion by albatrosses in the southwest Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 96: 149-154, 2015.
Käppler A, et al. Analysis of environmental microplastics by vibrational microspectroscopy: FTIR, Raman or both? Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 408: 8377-8391, 2016.
Kühn S, Bravo Rebolledo EL, van Franeker JA. Deleterious effects of litter on marine life. In Marine anthropogenic litter. Edited by M Bergmann, L Gutow, and M Klages. Springer Open, Bremerhaven, Germany. pp. 75-116, 2015.
Kühn S, van Franeker JA. Quantitative overview of marine debris ingested by marine megafauna. Marine pollution bulletin, 151, 110858, 2020.
Kühn S, Booth AM, Sørensen L, Van Oyen A, Van Franeker JA. Transfer of additive chemicals from marine plastic debris to the stomach oil of northern fulmars. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8, 138, 2020.
Kühn S. Message in a belly: Plastic pathways in Fulmars. Tese de Doutorado. Wageningen University, 2020.
Kühn S, van Oyen A, Rebolledo ELB, Ask AV, van Franeker JA. Polymer types ingested by northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) and southern hemisphere relatives. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(2), 1643-1655, 2021.
Lavers JL, Bond AL, Hutton I. Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): Implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals. Environmental Pollution, 187:124-129, 2014.
Lavers J. L., Stivaktakis, G., Hutton, I., Bond, A. L. Detection of ultrafine plastics ingested by seabirds using tissue digestion. Marine Pollution Bulletin 142: 470-474, 2019.
Leat EH, et al. Influence of wintering area on persistent organic pollutants in a breeding migratory seabird. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 491: 277-293, 2013.
Le Guen C, Suaria G, Sherley RB, Ryan PG, Aliani S, Boehme L, Brierley AS. Microplastic study reveals the presence of natural and synthetic fibres in the diet of King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) foraging from South Georgia. Environment international, 134, 105303, 2020.
Lenzi J, Burgues MF, Carrizo D, Machín E, Teixeira-de Mello F. Plastic ingestion by a generalist seabird on the coast of Uruguay. Marine pollution bulletin, 107(1), 71-76, 2016.
Limonta G, et al. Microplastics induce transcriptional changes, immune response and behavioral alterations in adult zebrafish. Scientific reports, 9(1): 1-11, 2019.
Lindborg VA, Ledbetter JF, Walat JM, Moffett C. Plastic consumption and diet of Glaucous-winged Gulls (Larus glaucescens). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64(11): 2351-2356, 2012.
Lusher AL, Hernandez-Milian G, O'Brien J, Berrow S, O'Connor I, Officer R. Microplastic and macroplastic ingestion by a deep diving, oceanic cetacean: the True's beaked whale Mesoplodon mirus. Environmental Pollution, 199: 185-191, 2015.
Lusher AL, Welden NA, Sobral P, Cole M. Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by fish and invertebrates. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1346-1360, 2017.
Lusher AL, Hernandez-Milian G. Microplastic extraction from marine vertebrate digestive tracts, regurgitates and scats: a protocol for researchers from all experience levels. Bio-protocol, 8(22): e3087, 2018.
Maes T, Jessop R, Wellner N, Haupt K, Mayes AG. A rapid-screening approach to detect and quantify microplastics based on fluorescent tagging with Nile Red. Nature Scientific Reports, 7: 44501, 2017.
Mallory ML. Marine plastic debris in northern fulmars from the Canadian high Arctic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56(8): 1501-1504, 2008..
Mato Y, Isobe T, Takada H, Kanehiro H, Ohtake C, Kaminuma T. Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environmental Science and Technology, 35: 318-324, 2001.
McInnes JC, Raymond B, Phillips RA, Jarman SN, Lea MA, Alderman R. A review of methods used to analyse albatross diets—assessing priorities across their range. Ices Journal of Marine Science, 73(9), 2125-2137, 2016.
Nelms SE, Parry HE, Bennett KA, Galloway TS, Godley BJ, Santillo D, Lindeque PK. What goes in, must come out: Combining scatâ€based molecular diet analysis and quantification of ingested microplastics in a marine top predator. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 10(10): 1712-1722, 2019.
Nilsen F, Hyrenbach KD, Fang J, Jensen B. Use of indicator chemicals to characterize the plastic fragments ingested by Laysan albatross. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 87: 230-236, 2014.
Neumann S, Harju M, Herzke D, Anker-Nilssen T, Christensen-Dalsgaard S, Langset, M, Gabrielsen GW. Ingested plastics in northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis): A pathway for polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure?. Science of the Total Environment, 778, 146313, 2021.
OSPAR, 2015. Guidelines for Monitoring of Plastic Particles in Stomachs of Fulmars in the North Sea Area. OSPAR Commission Agreement 2015-03 (Source: EIHA 15/5/12 Add.1), 26pp
Padula V, Beaudreau AH, Hagedorn B, Causey D. Plastic-derived contaminants in Aleutian Archipelago seabirds with varied foraging strategies. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 158, 111435, 2020.
Parsons M, et al. Seabirds as indicators of the marine environment. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65:1520-1526, 2008.
Perold V, Schoombie S, Ryan PG. Decadal changes in plastic litter regurgitated by albatrosses and giant petrels at sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 159, 111471, 2020.
Petry MV, Benemann VR. Ingestion of marine debris by the White-chinned Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis): Is it increasing over time off southern Brazil?. Marine pollution bulletin, 117(1-2), 131-135, 2017.
Phillips RA, et al. The conservation status and priorities for albatrosses and large petrels. Biological Conservation, 201: 169-183, 2016.
Phillips RA. Efficacy and effects of diet sampling of albatross chicks. Emu, 106: 305-308, 2006.
Phillips RA, Ridley C, Reid K, Pugh PJ, Tuck GN, Harrison N. Ingestion of fishing gear and entanglements of seabirds: Monitoring and implications for management. Biological Conservation, 143: 501-512, 2010.
Phillips RA, Waluda CM. Albatrosses and petrels at South Georgia as sentinels of marine debris input from vessels in the southwest Atlantic Ocean. Environment international, 136, 105443, 2020.
Pierce KE, Harris RJ, Larned LS, Pokras MA. Obstruction and starvation associated with plastic ingestion in a Northern Gannet Morus bassanus and a Greater Shearwater Puffinus gravis. Marine Ornithology, 32: 187-9, 2004.
Polder A, Venter B, Skaare JU, Bouwman H. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and HBCD in bird eggs of South Africa. Chemosphere, 73: 148-154, 2008.
Poon FE, Provencher JF, Mallory ML, Braune BM, Smith PA. Levels of ingested debris vary across species in Canadian Arctic seabirds. Marine pollution bulletin, 116(1-2), 517-520, 2017.
Prokić MD, Radovanović TB, Gavrić JP, Faggio C. Ecotoxicological effects of microplastics: Examination of biomarkers, current state and future perspectives. TrAC Trends in analytical chemistry, 111: 37-46, 2019.
Provencher JF, Gaston AJ, Mallory ML. Evidence for increased ingestion of plastics by northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) in the Canadian Arctic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58, 1092-1095, 2009.
Provencher JF, et al. Prevalence of marine debris in marine birds from the North Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 84:411-417, 2014.
Provencher JF, et al. Quantifying ingested debris in marine megafauna: a review and recommendations for standardization. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1454-1469, 2017.
Provencher JF, et al. Are ingested plastics a vector of PCB contamination in northern fulmars from coastal Newfoundland and Labrador? Environmental research, 167, 184-190, 2018a.
Provencher JF, Vermaire JC, Avery-Gomm S, Braune BM, Mallory ML. Garbage in guano? Microplastic debris found in faecal precursors of seabirds known to ingest plastics. Science of the Total Environment, 644: 1477-1484, 2018b.
Provencher JF, et al. Recommended best practices for plastic and litter ingestion studies in marine birds: Collection, processing, and reporting. Facets, 4(1): 111-130, 2019.
Provencher JF, et al. Are phthalate ester contaminants in northern fulmar preen oil higher in birds that have ingested more plastic? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 150: 110679, 2020.
Puskic, P. S., Lavers, J. L., Bond, A. L. (2020). A critical review of harm associated
with plastic ingestion on vertebrates. Science of the Total Environment, 140666
Ríos LM, Moore C, Jones PR. Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54: 1230-1237, 2007.
Rochman CM, Kurobe T, Flores I, Teh SJ. Early warning signs of endocrine disruption in adult fish from the ingestion of polyethylene with and without sorbed chemical pollutants from the marine environment. Science of the Total Environment, 493: 656-661, 2014.
Roman L, Schuyler QA, Hardesty BD, Townsend KA. Prevalence and selectivity of anthropogenic debris ingestion in eastern Australian avifauna. PLoS One, 11(8): e0158343, 2016.
Roman L, Hardesty BD, Hindell M, Wilcox C. A quantitative analysis linking seabird mortality and marine debris ingestion. Nature Scientific Reports, 9:1-7, 2019.
Ryan PG. Seabirds indicate changes in the composition of plastic litter in the Atlantic and south-western Indian Oceans. Marine pollution bulletin, 56(8), 1406-1409, 2008.
Ryan PG, De Bruyn PN, Bester MN. Regional differences in plastic ingestion among Southern Ocean fur seals and albatrosses. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 104: 207-210, 2016.
Savoca MS, Wohlfeil ME, Ebeler SE, Nevitt GA. Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds. Science Advances, 2: e1600395, 2016.
Sebille EV, et al. The physical oceanography of the transport of floating marine debris. Environmental Research Letters, 15: 023003, 2020.
Stewart LG., Lavers JL, Grant ML, Puskic PS, Bond AL. Seasonal ingestion of anthropogenic debris in an urban population of gulls. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 160: 111549, 2020.
Tanaka K, Takada H, Yamashita R, Mizukawa K, Fukuwaka M, Watanuki Y. Accumulation of plastic derived chemicals in tissues of seabirds ingesting marine plastics. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 69:219-222, 2013.
Tanaka K, Takada H, Yamashita R, Mizukawa K, Fukuwaka M, Watanuki Y. Facilitated leaching of additive-derived PBDES from plastic by seabirds´ stomach oil and accumulation tissues. Environmental Science & Technology, 49:11799-11807, 2015.
Tanaka K, Yamashita R, Takada H. Transfer of hazardous chemicals from ingested plastics to higher-trophic-level organisms. In Hazardous Chemicals Associated with Plastics in the Marine Environment (pp. 267-280). Springer, Cham, 2018.
Tanaka K, van Franeker JA, Deguchi T, Takada H. Piece-by-piece analysis of additives and manufacturing byproducts in plastics ingested by seabirds: Implication for risk of exposure to seabirds. Marine pollution bulletin, 145, 36-41, 2019.
Tanaka, K., Watanuki, Y., Takada, H., Ishizuka, M., Yamashita, R., Kazama, M., Nakayama, S. M. (2020). In vivo accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals into seabird tissues. Current Biology, 30(4), 723-728
Tavares D, de Moura J, Merico A, Siciliano S. Incidence of marine debris in seabirds feeding at different water depths. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 119: 68-73, 2017.
Titmus AJ, Hyrenbach KD. Habitat associations of floating debris and marine birds in the North East Pacific Ocean at coarse and meso spatial scales. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62: 2496-2506, 2011.
Tourinho PS, do Sul JAI, Fillmann G. Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60(3), 396-401, 2010.
Uhart M, Gallo L, Serafini PP. Sampling guidelines to assess plastic ingestion in ACAP species. Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. 21 pp., https://www.acap.aq/all-the-docs/english/acap-conservation-guidelines/3728-plastics-sampling-guidelines/file , 2020.
van Franeker J, et al. Monitoring plastic ingestion by the northern fulmar Fulmarus glacialis in the North Sea. Environmental Pollution, 159: 2609e2615, 2011.
Weimerskirch H, Inchausti P, Guinet C, Barbraud C. Trends in birds and seals population as indicators of a system shift in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic Science, 15:249-256, 2003.
Wilcox C, Van Sebille E, Hardesty BD. Threat of plastic pollution to seabirds is global, pervasive, and increasing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112: 11899-11904, 2015.
Yamashita R, Takada H, Fukuwaka MA, Watanuki Y. Physical and chemical effects of ingested plastic debris on short-tailed shearwaters, Puffinus tenuirostris, in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine pollution bulletin, 62(12): 2845-2849, 2011.
Yorio P, Marinao C, Kasinsky T, Ibarra C, Suárez N. Patterns of plastic ingestion in kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) populations breeding in northern Patagonia, Argentina. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 156, 111240, 2020.
Descargas
Publicado
Versiones
- 2021-12-16 (2)
- 2021-12-16 (1)
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2021 Biodiversidade Brasileira - BioBrasil
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/4.0/88x31.png)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
Os artigos estão licenciados sob uma licença Creative Commons Atribuição-NãoComercial-SemDerivações 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). O acesso é livre e gratuito para download e leitura, ou seja, é permitido copiar e redistribuir o material em qualquer mídia ou formato.